Glass Ceiling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Glass Ceiling - Essay Example Having men and women as full partners will improve organizational performance by diversifying communication and decision-making styles that can lead to enhanced management processes and organizational outcomes. Male and female law firm partners have distinct communication styles that can improve how decisions are made in the company, which can boost collaboration and networking that, in turn, will consequently boost morale and firm performance. The American society continues to generally follow a gendered approach to parenting and educating children. Traditional institutions teach gender differences in values and expectations, where women are generally brought up to be empathetic and passive in communication and collaborative and seeking harmony when making decisions, while men are usually trained to be direct, aggressive, and competitive in communication and logical and rules-based in making decisions (Parcheta et al., 2013, p.244). Evans actually seems to balance masculine and feminine communication and styles because the Associates Committee either sees her as too passive or too aggressive. Either way, she brings in her own way of thinking, speaking, and interacting that can enrich how the firm manages the business and attracts clientele. If she is promoted, this will have a positive morale-boosting effect on female attorneys and encourage many of them to also aspire for partnership status. As they do so, these female lawyers will work harder and be more productive, thereby improving total firm performance. Aside from bringing in new communication style, having women as full partners can enhance decision-making in the company. Bear and Woolley (2011) mentioned the 2010 study of Woolley et al., where the latter found out that having women in groups increased collective intelligence because women boost social sensitivity, turn-taking, and empathy in group

Should the U.S. intervene in some way in Syria or should it stay out Research Paper - 1

Should the U.S. intervene in some way in Syria or should it stay out - Research Paper Example Assad of backing up Kurdish rebels with the intention of inflaming pressures between the Turkey and Kurds. American intervention could therefore contain the situation and avoid more conflicts (Yossi 56). United States’ involvement in Syria could form a fortification against terrorist groups such as the Al Qaeda. American can only achieve this by equipping and training trustworthy partners in Syria’s interior opposition. Most of these extremists have found safe havens in the non-administered spots in Syria. American move will not only assist Syria but the American too by apprehending some of these extremists and bringing them to justice (Zisser 24). Additionally, American involvement on Syria might mend associations with crucial allies like Qatar and Turkey. The prime minister of Turkey and his Qatari equivalent have condemned America for presenting only non-fatal backing to the revolt. Both approved the establishment of a no-fly area and â€Å"secure areas† for civilians in the territory of Syria yet these precautions will end the conflict (Perthes 65). Lastly, American intervention in Syria might culminate a dreadful human-rights catastrophe in Syria and halt the migration of emigrants, which is establishing a liability on bordering states. President Obama guaranteed prior this year to reinforce the government’s capacity â€Å"to predict, avoid and act to mass and genocide atrocities.† As a result, United States can avoid and stop the atrocities by positioning allies in the front-run and thereby avoid slithering down the greasy slope to ground warfare (Tucker and Roberts89). One of the cons for US intervention in Syria is the huge American’s debt. American debt is a threat its national security and economic stability. American debt has already raged over the $16 trillion dollar obligation mark. Keep in mind that United States’

Farenheit 451 Life Essay Example for Free

Farenheit 451 Life Essay What is it like to live in a parallel universe where everything is opposite and nothing seems to make sense? In Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, the author portrays a different point of view through his science fiction dyspepsia novel. In this novel, Bradbury portrays a lifestyle of no individuality, no questioning, or not even reading a book, in result, causing people to react without thinking. Therefore, this novel could be considered a warning to todays society and the outcome of the future. Many people in todays world act like conformists much like the people in Fahrenheit 451. For instance, in this scene Mildred describes the following; They write the script with one part missing. Its a new idea. The homemaker, thats me, is the missing part. When it comes time for the missing part, they all look at me out of the three walls and I say the lines. Here for instance, the man says, What do you think of this whole idea Helen?. And I say, I say, I think thats fine! (pages 17-18). In this description, it is clear that Mildred is a person who mindlessly follows certain standards to be in the social norm, thus a conformist. In fact, this is often used today through social networking devices such as Youth where people listen to the videos and become obsessed and infatuated with a particular style or social norm. In contrast, l sometime think drivers dont know what grass is or flowers because they never see them slowly, she said l rarely watch the parlor walls or go to races or Fu n Parks. So Vie got lots of time for crazy thoughts, I guess. Pages 6-7) This illustrates how when Claries take things slowly, she gets to see the whole world and not Just a portion of it eke if she was rushing. In comparison to todays world, if people would slow down and take the time to think, the world wouldnt have as many conformists. Today, social networking has taken on a major role in daily lives. In Fahrenheit 451, it describes a similar experience; Picture it. Nineteen century man with his horses, dogs, carts, slow motion. Then in the twentieth century speed up your camera. Books cut shorter. Condensation. Digest tabloids. Everything boils down to the gag, the snap ending. (page 52). Thus, implying that life has become fast pace and individuals have very little time to read, enjoy life or hobbies. In fact, the use of cell phones today dictates the life of many teenagers who dont have time to socialize face to face and conveniently do so through cell phones. Furthermore, messages are condensed to abbreviations such as 101 and OMG as a way of saving time. Additionally, There was a tiny dance of melody in the air, her Seashell was tamped in her ear again and she was listening to people far away Why didnt he buy himself and audio-seashell station and talk to his wife late at night Page 39) This scene shows how Montage wants to talk to his wife but she is constantly on her ear phones. This is yet another example that can compare to how teenagers today are constantly using technology so much that is distracts them from other things. In Fahrenheit 451, books are burned to prevent individuality and solicit a form of censorship of what is acceptable and what is not in accordance with government, social, and cultural norms. Specifically this scene; cant ever have my books, she The people in those books never lived. Come out of it now! This form of censorship and eradication of literature is designed to prevent individualism and to foster a specific belief. Also comparing to how in todays world, people do not want other individuals to stray from the social cycle. Furthermore, Im antisocial they say. I dont mix. Its so strange. Im very social indeed. (page 26). This quote shows how Claries doesnt fit into her school because she doesnt reason like the other students. When this is equated to the world today, it can be used as an example on how people preferential people through looks, different thoughts, and overall appearance and section them out from what is considered normal. Throughout this book, Bradbury shows the reader how technology can brainwash people into mindless fools with no originality. This compares to how in todays world, people use technology as a way to fit in. Therefore, this concludes Fahrenheit 451 can be a warning to society and the outcome of the future. In conclusion, how much exposure can this world handle until we become mindless people?

Experiment of Long Term Memory Retention

Experiment of Long Term Memory Retention Abstract: The purpose of this study was to test the retention of long term memory based on retrieval environments. Our research is based on Godden and Baddeley’s (1976) study that focused on the relationship between retrieval environments and learning. The technique known as context-dependency –which is defined as â€Å"the belief that what is learnt in a given environment is best recalled in that environment† –is tested and compared to previous research (Godden Baddeley, 1975). An experiment was conducted at Foundation Campus at the University of Central Lancashire with nine international student. Enlisting a repeated measures design and laboratory method, the participants are asked to learn and recall a list of 13 words in the same environment, then they were asked to learn and recall another list of 13 words in two different locations. The results corroborate and support the context-dependency memory effect. Introduction: This experiments is about assessing the effect of retrieval environments when it comes to long term memory (LTM) recall. LTM is described as stored information that can be recalled over a long period of time –e.g. days, weeks, etc. (Merriam-Webster, (2015). Godden and Baddeley (1995) decided to conduct an experiment to test this notion –also known as context-dependency memory effect. Context-dependency memory effect is defined as â€Å"the belief that what is learnt in a given environment is best recalled in that environment† (Godden Baddeley, 1975). The aim of Godden and Baddeley’s research was to examine the association between learning and retrieval environments (Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum, 2008:11). In order to carry out their experiment, Godden and Baddeley decided to enlist eighteen participants who were divers in Oban, Scotland (Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum, 2008:11). Furthermore, the divers were instructed to learn a list of forty distinct words on land or, fifteen feet under water (Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum, 2008:11). They were then asked to recall these words in a different location or in the same location (Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum, 2008:11). Specifically, half of the divers were directed to a different location when the time came for memory recollection, while the other half remain in the same environment for memory recollection (Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum, 2008:11). When partaking in Godden and Baddeley’s experiment, the list of 40 words were revealed to participants in groups –this all owed the divers to assume a relaxed/comfortable breathing rate in order to assure that the participants faced no obstacles when learning (Godden Baddeley, 1975). Additionally, each the list of words were revealed in blocks of three, and, the words were spaced at two second intervals (Godden Baddeley, 1975). When asked to recall, Godden and Baddeley found that â€Å"those who learned and recalled in the same location remembered the most words -12.5 on average† (Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum, 2008:11). According to the aforementioned graph, Godden and Baddeley found that when participant learned on land an recalled the information under water, they could only recall -on average -8.6 words, while those who learned under water and recalled the words land, only remembered 8.4 words on average (Godden Baddeley, 1975). This study –based on Godden and Baddeley’s research in 1975 – will examine and delve into the connection between learning and retrieval environments. This study will utilize students with diversified ethnic backgrounds and ages. Contrary to Godden and Baddeley’s research, it will use two lists of thirteen simple words -–all within one to three syllables –in order to ensure comprehension. Aim: To examine the connection between learning and retrieval environments using Godden and Baddeley’s study on context-dependency retrieval. Hypothesis: Memory recollection in the same environment in which information was learned will yield higher recollections among participants. The hypothesis for this experiment is directional, meaning the independent variable (the retrieval location/environment) will directly affect the dependent variable (the accuracy/amount of words recalled). Method: Design A controlled laboratory experiment was utilised to elucidate a distinct cause and effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables. A controlled laboratory also enabled immense control over variables within the experiment, it also permitted unproblematic replication for future researchers and easy utilisation of equipment –e.g. videos, etc. A repeated measures design was employed in order to negate/remove differences that numerous samples would possess. Due to this design, differences in gender, linguistic ability, comprehension and age were avoided. The independent variable in this experiment was the retrieval environment or location in which the participant were asked to recall the words –i.e. the classroom or the canteen. The dependent variable was the quantity of words the participant could recall in each environment/location. A confounding variable could be the sound/noise of police cars driving past the laboratory environment. In agreement with research principles/ethics, written informed consent forms were distributed to all participants before this experiment commenced. Participants were given the right to withdraw at any time, and immense confidentiality with participant’s information and results was promised and delivered. Participants: There were ten participants –five male and four female participants. The participants were obtained from diversified backgrounds –non-native English speakers and English speakers. Participants that contributed to this experiment were between the ages of eighteen to forty-seven. An opportunity sample was enlisted for this experiment. This sample type allowed expediency when enlisting when procuring participants, it also enables replication for future research. Materials: Informed Consent (Appendix 1) Standardised Instructions (Appendix 2) Word List 1 (Appendix 3) Word List 2 (Appendix 4) Comical Video (Appendix 5) Procedure: Initially, the aforementioned materials were given to the participants. Secondly, in order to check for errors in our experiment, a pilot study was conducted to ensure validity in the experiment. After the pilot study, a classroom and canteen was procured for the experiment. A mixed-gender opportunity sample of nine individuals –ranging from 18 to 25 –was obtained and directed into the classroom. During this experiment, the participants were first given an informed consent form (Appendix 1), after signing and agreeing to the form, they were shown the standardised instructions (Appendix 2). After the standardised instructions, the participants were given a piece of paper –with â€Å"experiment 1† written on one side, and â€Å"experiment 2† written on the other side, -they were also given pens to document their answers. Firstly, the participants were then shown Word List 1 (Appendix 3), secondly, they were given one minute to study the words, then they were shown a four minute Comical Video (Appendix 6), and then they were given approximately one minute to write down the words they could recall. In the next stage of our experiment, the same participants were asked to flip their paper over, then they were given exactly one minute to study Word list 2 (Appendix 4), the participants they were asked to walk around the Vernon Building (located in the University of Central Lancashire’s campus) to a canteen. When the participants arrived at the canteen, they were promptly seated and given one minute to recall and write down the words they could recall in one minute. Results: The result of this experiment were harmonious to that of Godden and Baddeley’s in 1975. 66.67% of the participants recalled more words when their retrieval location was the same as the learning environment, while 11.11% percent of participants recalled more information when the recollection environment was not the same as the learning environment. Furthermore, 33.33% of the population recalled the same amount of words irrespective of the retrieval environment. These results were in accordance with the hypothesis and Godden and Baddeley’s research in 1975. The mean of the results was greatly corrupted by outliers with the sample’s results, in order to rectify this, the median was enlisted to portray a balanced assessment of the results. The median of recollection when the learning and recollection environments were the same is 9 words with a range of 6. When the learning and recollection were different, the median of the recollection data was 4, with a range of 9. Overall, it was quite evident that recollection in the same environment where information is learned yields better results. The results support context-dependency memory effect. Discussion: The result of this experiment were harmonies with Godden and Baddeley’s research, this fortified the immense reliability of their research, and proved that it could be replicated by others. The results of the experiment magnified the context-dependency memory effect, and supported the hypothesis: â€Å"Memory recollection in the same environment in which information was learned will yield higher recollections among participants.† A laboratory method was ideal for this experiment because it allowed for control over numerous variables, and, it permitted and enabled ease when measuring the dependent variable. Utilising a repeated measures design removed differences that individuals could possibly possess that would rob this experiment of credibility. It could also be argued that ‘the fatigue effect’ –which states that â€Å"work †¦[has] a general effect of running down the bodies limited energy supply† –adversely affected the participants recollection after walking around the Vernon Building (Hockey, 2013). Perhaps this is why only one out of the nine participants recalled more on the second experiment. The small sample size on nine indicates that this experiment is not generalizable to bigger populations. Albeit the sample had a plethora of nationalities and ages, this suggests that no definite proclamations can be made about nationality or age. Furthermore, a confounding variable could be the sound/noise of police cars driving past the laboratory environment, or, the limited linguistic ability of some participants. Any further research/study into this topic could be ameliorated by enlisting a grander sample size, or, using both locations as learning and retrieval environments; this provide a deeper insight into context-dependency memory effect. A longer list of words could also be employed to test retention in LTM. References: Cardwell, M., Clark, L. and Meldrum, C. (2008)Psychology AS For AQA A. 3rd edn. London: Harper Collins Publishers. Godden, D. R., Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater.British Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 325–331. Hockey, R. (2013) The Psychology of Fatigue: Work, Effort and Control. 1st edn. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Jansen, I. (2015). Charlie Chaplin The Lions Cage. [online] YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2dmV2-zxNg [Accessed 10 Mar. 2015]. Merriam-webster, (2015). Definition of Long-term Memory. [online] Merriam-webster.com. Available at: http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/long-term memory [Accessed 6 Mar. 2015]. Appendices Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Comical Video provided and republished by Jansen (2015). Appendix 6

Overcoming Communication Barriers between Genders Essay -- Gender Diffe

Roles of men and women Of the many changes which have taken place in American society since World War II, one of the greatest has been in the roles of men and women. Members of both genders have lived multiple roles in the past, but these were generally established ones, such as men being the wage earners and women the caregivers. Communication followed largely defined cultural and societal norms. Usually, nuances in speech and in body language could readily be interpreted. As Archie Bunker nostalgically sang in television’s "All in the Family," "... and you knew who you were then; girls were girls and men were men." Many of the roles have remained the same, but now they frequently are carried out by members of either gender. Women have careers in engineering or sports; a growing number of men have full-time care of home, children, and the disabled. Both men and women have a variety of jobs in the workplace and positions in the hierarchy of management. Communication between the genders has become more prevalent and pervasive in society, as norms have changed. When one adds the mobility of the American population and the differences among the cultures they represent, both the importance and difficulty of effective communication increases. Now medical and sociological researchers are offering aid, even across cultural lines, in gender communication. Communication differences Few Americans communicate with as many different types of individuals of both genders as U.S. Army chaplains and chaplain assistants as they interact with each other, and provide religious support to soldiers, family members, and other civilians — worldwide. Their roles and orientation to people often give them special insights in communication. The following observations, however, may also be helpful to both men and women. Men are widely observed to come quickly to the point they wish to make, while women tend to use more detail in leading up to the point. In communicating with women, men may become impatient as they search for the point, or lose interest. If they interrupt, women can be frustrated or offended. In talking with men, therefore, women can use two techniques to communicate more effectively. First, begin with the point, or "bottom line," if possible. Second, omit unnecessary detail. On the other hand, men can refrai... ...relate nonsense words, men used only the left sides of their brains; but after the majority of women processed the information on the left sides of their brains. They used the right side to relate additional examples. Might this difference have any bearing on the fact that women as a group usually include more detail in their speech? Conclusion Knowledge may continue to expand; many enigmas of speech and behavior may be solved. But good communication between individuals can continue to be based on the precept underlying all the examples described above. This precept, shared by the great religions of the world, is kindness: caring for each other. BIBLIOGRAPHY Glass, Lillian, "How to Communicate Better with the Opposite Sex," Bottom Line/Personal, August 15, 1996. _____, "Perspectives on Literacy, Gender, and Change," British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 16, Issue 4, December 1995. Richardson, Susan, "S/HE Brains," Discover Magazine, June 1995. Margaret Robertson served as a program analyst in the Directorate of Combat Developments at the Chaplain School until her retirement in March 1997. Army Chaplaincy

Kate Chopins Desirees Baby Essay -- Kate Chopin Desirees Baby

Kate Chopin's Desiree's Baby This essay will focus on the short story by Kate Chopin and its use of symbols, setting and characters. Desiree’s baby was perhaps one of the best stories I’ve ever read. Analyzing it was not easy at all. Its use of symbols was very hard to comprehend. At first, it doesn’t make sense. But as you think critically, all the symbols, and setting and the characters in this literature plunge together in one amazing story. Literary Analysis on Kate Chopin's Desiree's Baby â€Å"Tell me what it means!† she cried despairingly.† It means,† he answered lightly, â€Å"that the child is not white; it means that you are not white† (Chopin, p. 192). Kate Chopin's "Desiree's Baby" is a well-known short story. â€Å"In her life, Kate Chopin actively searched for female spiritual emancipation and expressed it in her writing†(Deter, 2000). Throughout the story, Kate Chopin uses symbolism to convey her themes of racial predisposition, unequal gender roles, and social ladder in a society. The characters and the setting in this short story help provide the readers with more understanding of how patriarchal our society is at that time. The story begins with the narrator speaking of Desiree, and how she was found lying asleep, next to the property entrance. It was evident that she was abandoned; there were assumptions of who might have possibly left the small infant child. The story line took place in Louisiana. During the particular time era, and in this region, large plantations were very common, slavery too. The family who found Desiree was plantation owners an... ... wants the readers to know that if only women would have the courage to walk dangerously in life, women can succeed at anything. And Desiree didn’t look back. Fear was something Armand did not know because he always had domination over everything around him. It was on the last part of the story that he discovered a letter from his mother to his father that revealed that it was indeed he who was black. God did enact the final revenge with the appearance of the letter. The story touches on several social issues that would not be talked about in specific places and times. The struggle for women and the discrimination against certain races continue as of this moment. The symbols, characters, and setting of this short story helped me to analyze how Kate Chopin writes her work. I just wonder what would Armand Aubigny do after he found out that he is one of them.

1831: Year of Eclipse Essay

On February 12, 1831, a full eclipse of the sun darkened America’s skies. Newspapers nationwide heralded its arrival, and commentators congratulated themselves that the â€Å"idle fears and gloomy forebodings†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthe past superstitions attached to such events–had been replaced by â€Å"pleasing admiration† of the wonders of nature and society’s progress in scientific understanding. However, says Masur (Rites of Execution), professor of history at the City University of New York, what unfolded in 1831 belies this chauvinistic claim of America’s advancement. Rather, he builds a case that America’s future faced inevitable upheaval directly linked to the failure of the founders to resolve two fundamental conflicts: the contradiction between a country founded on the â€Å"inalienable rights of man† embracing the cruelty and inhumanity of slavery, and the tension between a federal government intent on preserving the Union and the states’ claims of uncontestable sovereignty. Masur draws upon an exceptionally rich array of voices, quoting generously from figures as divergent as slave rebellion leader Nat Turner, abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Andrew Jackson. Masur vividly chronicles the plight of the Cherokee, who despite their willingness to cooperate with the U.S. government, were forced from their homeland and marched west on the infamous Trail of Tears. Tocqueville traveled to the U.S. in 1831, prompting him to write Democracy in America, and as Masur notes, Tocqueville’s prescient observations illuminated not only the intractable problems of slavery and race in America but also the extraordinary uniqueness and energy of America’s citizens. Masur’s accessible and intriguing work, which appeals to a wide and diverse audience interested in American history, raises the year 1831, not necessarily one that stands out in most Americans’ minds, above insignificance. Passing in and out of Favor Although single-year studies fell out of favor amid the social-history boom of the 1970’s and 1980’s, they have a place in history circles. Among Mr. Masur’s favorite histories, and a work that influenced his own, is The Year of Decision: 1846, a study published in 1943 by the historian Bernard DeVoto, who went on to win the Pulitzer and Bancroft Prizes in his field. A huge best seller in its time, the volume is now seldom read or studied even by professional historians. Now and then, other historians have made similar forays, usually concentrating on a year marked by war, bloodshed, or political upheaval, like Kenneth Milton Stampp’s America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink. Lately, though, such experiments seem to be flourishing–and the more obscure the year, the better. Hence titles like American Nervousness, 1903: An Anecdotal History, by Tom Lutz, a study of the physical and psychological illnesses that plagued elite Americans at the turn of the century. Or 1910: The Emancipation of Dissonance, by Thomas Harrison, a look at how and why harmony came to be replaced by dissonance in painting, music, and other art forms. â€Å"We’ve shifted away from causal and exemplary history, back toward epochal history, which constructs microcosms and tells you what the whole universe is like from the standpoint of one year, or in some cases, one grand age,† says Douglas Mitchell, the veteran humanities editor at the University of Chicago Press. Part of the reason is historians’ renewed interest in narratives as a way to create synthesis. A single year is a manageable way to narrow the scope, deal in specifics, yet still work with a beginning, middle, and end. â€Å"An annualized history is a way to bridge the gap between conventional narratives, which tend to be driven by political events, and newer histories, which have no clear linear narrative,† says Alan Brinkley, a professor of history at Columbia University. â€Å"Focusing on a year allows one to combine a narrative of sorts with explorations of many areas of life as developed by newer histories.† Mr. Masur’s book, as well as John E. Wills Jr.’s upcoming 1688: A Global History, are colorfully written and rely on dramatic scene-setting. (1688 even does without footnotes.) Though bound by time, they range widely across place, focusing on what happens when people travel and make contact, and how similar ideas can echo in very different settings. â€Å"Historians have long called for some kind of creative synthesis, but the problem has been how to incorporate the voices of elites and workers, men and women, Indians and slaves, celebrators and detractors, and weave them together in a coherent story,† says Mr. Masur. Instead of talking yet again about whether to use narrative techniques in writing history, scholars will show how it’s done at a â€Å"reading slam† at this month’s American Historical Association conference. There Mr. Masur will read from his new book. Digging Deep into a Single Year If nothing else, digging deep into a single year can lead to nifty juxtapositions. The portentous eclipse that gives Mr. Masur his title turned up in Nat Turner’s confession, New England sermons, and newspaper editorials opposed to the reelection of President Andrew Jackson. In 1688, as the English seaman William Dampier was sending vivid descriptions home about the â€Å"miserablest people in the world†Ã¢â‚¬â€œAustralian aborigines–two Jesuit missionaries joined a thousand Chinese cavalrymen on a sophisticated expedition to survey northern China. For a world historian, looking at a year like 1688 is a way to avoid Eurocentrism while still capturing the flow of people and commodities, contends Mr. Wills, a professor of history at the University of Southern California. â€Å"The making of the modern world is the result of worldwide processes in which the Europeans are not the only active originators,† he says. Of course, Mr. Wills admits in his introduction that many of the people he describes wouldn’t have known the year as 1688 at all, given their varied calendars. Even so, â€Å"signs of the basic shifts that created our own very different world† are there: â€Å"The rise of science; the growth of cities and commerce; government policies to promote economic growth; an immense variety of writing and publishing, some of it for broad urban audiences; some very individual and idiosyncratic acceptances and reinterpretations of the great religions; protests against slavery and the subordination of women.† â€Å"This is all part of one world in a strong, simultaneous sense,† the professor says. Text and Context English professors, too, have been bitten by the one-year bug. While historians try to write with more literary flair, literature scholars have returned to history, doing archival research to put novels and poems in political and cultural context. Yet many scholars believe that move has gone too far; literature simply gets reduced to historical evidence, and the particular qualities of certain literary genres get lost in the shuffle. Studying a single year helps to keep both text and context in focus, says Michael North, a professor of English at the University of California at Los Angeles. â€Å"It’s a way of compromising between the demands of history and the demands of structure,† says Mr. North, the author of Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern. â€Å"There is an element of trying to define a zeitgeist,† adds Marshall Brown, a professor of English and comparative literature at the University of Washington, and the editor of Modern Language Quarterly. â€Å"Methodologically it’s a kind of gamble, a provocation to do interdisciplinary work.† Often such writing projects begin as classroom experiments. James Chandler, a professor of English language and literature at the University of Chicago, found that his graduate courses in Romantic poetry tended to be clustered around works published in two years, 1789 and 1819. Yet 1819 stood out for the remarkable poetry produced in a single year. Over time, Mr. Chandler decided to concentrate on that year, teaching the leading poets alongside historical novels and political texts important in their day. The result is England in 1819: The Politics of Literary Culture and the Case of Romantic Historicism, an ambitious volume that Mr. Brown calls the most-cited recent book in the field. 1819 is well known to Romanticists as the year that Shelley and Keats wrote much of their greatest poetry. But that’s not all. Byron began his most important poem, â€Å"Don Juan,† Coleridge delivered a series of philosophical lectures, and Hazlitt published two volumes of essays. Why so much good stuff? According to Mr. Chandler, writers for the first time were self-consciously speaking to and about their historical moment. 1819 was an extremely volatile year, marked by the Peterloo Massacre that nearly toppled the English government, leading to restrictions in freedom of the press and the right to assemble. People training for other work began to put words to paper. â€Å"People of extraordinary talent were drawn to the literary field because so much could happen there,† says Mr. Chandler, whose book takes its title from a pro-radical Shelley sonnet of the same name. The idea that you could sum up the spirit of the age in a single year, instead of, say, by citing the reign of a king or queen, was new to England. â€Å"You didn’t have year-end reviews in the 14th century. You didn’t really have them in the early 18th century,† the professor explains. By building the Romantic canon around poets, scholars have tended to ignore the historical novels that were popular at the time. Mr. Chandler gives them their due, featuring a chapter on Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe and The Bride of Lammermoor. â€Å"You do cultural history in this period and you realize that the entire country was obsessed with Scott,† says Mr. Chandler. For modernism, 1922 was the year to remember. James Joyce published Ulysses that year, and T. S. Eliot The Waste Land. The world of literature was never the same. â€Å"The world broke in two in 1922 or thereabouts,† wrote Willa Cather, who found her own brand of realism falling out of favor in the wake of the self-consciousness of high modernism. Works Cited Masur, Louis P., 1831: Year of Eclipse. Hill & Wang, 2001